Figures of speech   

                                Part - 1st 

       We can all put words together and come up with sentences to express ourselves. But sometimes, it's nice to enhance the language a little, without having to say everything literally. The transformation from ordinary speech to extraordinary speech, can be done with the use of a variety of figures of speech. They are defined as literary devices used to enhance the quality of language, written or spoken.

 

Figures of Speech may be classified as under:-

(1)    Those based on Resemblance, such as  Simile, Metaphor, Personification and Apostrophe.

(2)    Those based on Contrast, such as Antithesis and Epigram.

(3)    Those based on Association, such as Metonymy and Synecdoche.

(4)    Those depending on Construction, such as Climax and Anticlimax.

 

 SIMILE (उपमा)

  In a Simile a comparison is made between two objects of different kinds which have however at least one point in common.

The Simile is usually introduced by such words as like, as or so.

(समानता दर्शवण्यासाठी like,as,so अश्या तुलनात्मक शब्दांचा वापर केला जातो)

1.    Because she looks like a flower but she stings like a bee.

2.     Like every girl in history.

3.    George felt as worn out as an old joke that was never very funny in the first place.

4.    The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.

5.    The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree.

6.    Words are like leaves: and where they most abound, Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.

7.    How far that little candle throws his beams! So shines a good deed in a naughty world.

8.    Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale vexing the dull ear of a drowsy man.

9.     O my Love's like a red, red rose That's newly sprung in June;

              The following are some common similes of everyday speech:-

Mad as a March Hare; as proud as a peacock; as bold as brass; as tough as leather; as clear as crystal; as good as gold; as old as the hills; as cool as a cucumber.

Note:- A comparison of two things of the same kind is not a Simile.

 

METAPHOR (रूपक)

 A Metaphor is an implied Simile. It does not, like the Simile, state that one thing is like another or acts as another, but takes that for granted and proceeds as if the two things were one.

      एखाद्या घटकाशी तुलना न करता प्रत्यक्षात त्या घटकाला दुसर्याचे रूप देणे म्हणजे Metaphor होय  यात So,as,like या सारख्या तुलनादर्शक शब्दांचा वापर केलेला नसतो.

Thus, when we say, 'He fought like a lion' we use a Simile, but when we say, 'He was a lion in the fight', we use a Metaphor.

1.    The camel is the ship of the desert.

2.    Life is a dream.( जीवनाची स्वप्नाबरोबर तुलना न करता, जीवन  हेच स्वप्न आहे असे म्हटले आहे.)

3.    The news was a dagger to his heart.

Revenge is a kind of wild justice.

Every Simile can be compressed into a Metaphor and every Metaphor can be expanded into a Simile. 

PERSONIFICATION (चेतनागुनोक्ती)  

In Personification inanimate objects and abstract notions are spoken of as having life and intelligence. (या अलंकारात निर्जीव घटक किंवा अमूर्त कल्पना ( भाववाचक नाम ) मानवाप्रमाणे किंवा सजीवाप्रमाणे कृती करतात असे दर्शविले जाते.

1.    Anxiety is sitting on his face.

2.    Laughter holding both her sides.

3.    Death lays his icy hand on kings. (मृत्यूला मानवाप्रमाणे हात आहेत अशी कल्पना केली आहे.)

4.    Let the same light kiss them…

5. The picture in that magazine screamed for attention.

 6. The carved pumpkin smiled at me.

 

APOSTROPHE (परोक्ष)

     Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses someone (or something) that is not present or cannot respond in reality. The entity being addressed can be an absent, dead, or imaginary person, but it can also be an inanimate object (like stars or the ocean), an abstract idea (like love or fate), or a being (such as a Muse or god)

    मृत , अनुपस्थित किंवा मानाविकृत कल्पना यांना प्रत्यक्ष मानून, संबोधून बोलले जाते.

1.    Please open up my eyes, dear Lord.

2.    Books! You are my dear companion.

3.    Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean-roll !

4.    O death ! where is thy sting ? O grave ! Where is thy victory ?

5.    O, you beautiful sky send all your beauty to earth.

6.    Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave, and charge with alt thy chivalry!

7.    O judgement! thou art fled to brutish beasts.

8.    O Solitude ! Where are the charms that sages have seen in thy face?

 

HYPERBOLE (अतिशयोक्ती)

      A hyperbole is a figure of speech used for the purpose of exaggeration. It mainly forms the basis of several jokes, is used as a way of insults, or could simply be used to dramatize a situation, where in reality, the situation may not be that bad. This can be understood with the help of these hyperbole.

  कोणतीही कल्पना प्रत्यक्षात आहे , त्यापेक्षा खूप फुगवून सांगितली जाते. त्यावेळी अतिशियोक्ती हा अलंकार असतो.

1.    Here's the smell of blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.

2.    Why, man, if the river were dry, I am able to fill it with tears.

3.    O Hamlet ! thou hast cleft my heart in twain.

4.    I'm so busy trying to accomplish ten million things at once.

5.    Your dog is so ugly, we had to pay the fleas to live on him.

 

EUPHEMISM

      A Euphemism is the use of neutral language to remark something that may be offensive to the receiver. Euphemism is often used by people who are diplomatic, and who wish to be politically correct.

या अलंकारातून कडू अर्थ गोड शब्दांनी किंवा अप्रिय गोष्ट सौम्य शब्दात व्यक्त केली जाते .

1. We have to let you go.    (You’re fired.)

2. You’re well fed.              (You're fat.)

3. He has fallen asleep.      (He is dead).

4. You are telling me a fairy tale. (a lie).

5. You are becoming a little thin on top. (bald)

6. Our teacher is in the family way. (pregnant)

 

 

ANTITHESIS  (विरोधालंकार)

   In antithesis a striking opposition or contrast of words or sentiments is made in the same sentence. It is employed to secure emphasis.

दोन विरोधी कल्पना किंवा शब्दाचे एकाच वाक्यात सादरीकरण केलेले असते .                

1.    Man proposes, God disposes.

2.    Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.

3.    Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice.

4.    Speech is silver, but silence is golden.

5.    To err is human, to forgive is divine.

6.    Many are called, but few are chosen.

7.    If you have a will to live and courage to die…..

8.    You're easy on the eyes, hard on the heart...

9.    For It rained all night the day I left, the weather it was dry, 

10.    The sun so hot, I froze to death...

 

EPIGRAM

     An Epigram is a brief pointed saying frequently introducing antithetical ideas which excite surprise and arrest attention.

1.    The child is father of the man.

2.    A man can't be too careful in the choice of his enemies.

3.    Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.

4.    In the midst of life we are in death.

5.    Art lies in concealing art,

6.    He makes no friend, who never made a foe.

7.    Know then thyself, presume not God to scan; The proper study of mankind is man,

8.    The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool,

9.    Lie heavy on him, earth, for he (Vanbrugh, the Architect) Laid many a heavy load on thee.

 

IRONY (उपरोध)

     Irony refers to the use of certain words that actually intend to convey the opposite. Irony forms the basis of sarcasm, and of humor. It is also a way of expressing the ugly truth in a slightly gentle manner. Some examples are:                

1. Bill Gates winning a computer.

     - Situational Irony (He is the owner of the world's largest software company.)

2. Having a fight with your best friend just before your birthday, and commenting –

     "Great, this is just what I needed".

- Verbal Irony (It is probably the worst thing that could happen before your birthday.)

3. In Romeo and Juliet, when Juliet is drugged, Romeo assumes her to be dead,

         and kills himself. Upon waking up Juliet finds him dead, and kills herself.

     - Dramatic Irony (Mainly based on miscommunication and misunderstanding.)

Direct - Indirect Speech

       

You can also watch video lecture on Direct Indirect

Narration   (Direct and Indirect Speech)

“Narration is the art of expressing what a person has said without using the speaker’s exact words”.

      Study the following sentences:

1. Geeta said to Ram, “I have lost my purse somewhere.”

2. Geeta told Ram that she had lost her purse somewhere. In the first sentence, the actual words of the speaker are given. This is called “Direct Speech.”

In the second sentence, the words of the speaker are reported without using the actual words. This is     called ‘Indirect or (Reported) Speech’.

Note : 

1. The exact words of the speaker are enclosed in inverted commas. 

2. The part of the sentence outside the inverted commas is called 

    the Reporting Speech and its Verb (said) is called the Reporting verb. 

3. Reported Speech is always kept between inverted commas (“…..”)

4. The first word of the Reported Speech is always kept ‘Capital’. 

5. Reported Speech and Reporting Verb is separated from comma.

Points to Remember for Indirect Speech:

1. Inverted commas are replaced with certain appropriate conjunction.

2. Tense of the Reporting Verb is not changed.

3. In Indirect Speech, sentences pertaining to questions and exclamation are changed into Assertive Sentence.

4. The tense of the Verb in the Reported Speech is changed as per rules given below :

RULES FOR CHANGE OF TENSES

Rule 1.

 If the Reporting Verb is in the Present Tense or the Future Tense, the Tense of the Verb in the Reported Speech is not changed.

Examples:

No.	Direct	Indirect
1.	He says, “I shall go to the movie.”	He says that he will go to the movie.
2.	He is saying. “You have deceived your friend.”	He is saying that you have deceived your friend.
3.	He will say to you, “You are not at fault.”	He will tell you that you are not at fault.
4.	Madhu will say, “Mohan has crossed the river.”	Madhu will say that Mohan has crossed the river.
5.	You will say. “I am undone.”	You will say that you are undone.
6.	I have send to you, “ He is my brother.”	I have told you that he is my brother.
7.	He says to me, “I can write in French.”	He tells me that he can write in French.

Rule 2.

 If the ‘Reporting Verb’ is in the past Tense, the tense of the Verbs in the Reported Speech is also change into the corresponding Past Tense. Thus

Present Indefinite Tense Do go, does go, goes, go do not go, does not go	Changes into	Past Indefinite Tense Went did not go
Present continuous Tense Is/am/are going		Past Continuous Tense Was, were going
3.Present Perfect Tense has/have gone		Past Perfect Tense Had gone
Present Perfect Continuous Tense  Has/have gone		Past Perfect Continuous Tense Had been going
Present Perfect Continuous Tense Has/have been going		Past Perfect Continuous Tense Had been going
Past Indefinite Tense Wrote/did write		Past Perfect Tense Had written
Past Continuous Tense Was/were going		Past Perfect Continuous Tense Had been going
Will, Shall		Would
Can		Could
May		Might

CHANGE OF PRONOUNS

First Person	I, my, me, we, our, us	Changes according to the Sub.(S)
Second Person	(You, Your)	Change according to the Obj. (O)
Third  Person	(He, She, It, His, Him, Her, They, Their, Them)	Does not change (N)

                                                       Some Other Changes

Here	Is changed into	There
Now		Then
This		That
These		Those
Today or this day		That day
Last night		The previous night
Last week		The previous week
Yesterday		The previous day
Tomorrow		The next day
Next week/month/year		The following week/month/year
Ago		Before
Thus		So
Hence		Thence
Hither		Thither
Sir/madam		Respectfully
Hereby		there by

Note: These changes are not made if the speech is reported during the same period or at the same place; 

Direct	Indirect
He said, “This is the house where I was born.”	He said that this was the house where he was born.
He said, “This is my book.”	He said that this was his book
You said to me, “I shall meet you here.”	You told me that you would meet me here.

Some more Examples

Direct	Indirect
He said, “I am unwell.”	He said that he was unwell.
Ram said, “I am going away to my house.”	Ram said that he was going away to his house.
She said to me, “I have seen the Taj.”	She told me that she had seen the Taj.
He said to Mohan. “It has been raining since morning.”	He told Mohan that it had been raining since morning.
He said to me, “I saw a stranger in the garden.”	He told me that he had seen a stranger in the garden.
He said to Rekha.“I was listening to the radio.”	He told Rekha that he had been listening to the radio.
I said to Malti, “I will help you.”	I told Malti that I would help her.
He said to Ram,“I will be leaving soon for the station.”	He told Ram that he would be leaving soon for the station.
They said, “We shall have finished our work by sunset.”	They said that they would have finished their work by sunset.
He said to me. “I can swim across the river.”	He told me that he could swim across the river.
He said to me, “I may come in your house.”	He told me that he might come in my house.

Exceptions to the above rule

    (1)    If the Reported Speech contains a Universal Truth or a Habitual Fact, its tense remains unchanged.

Direct	Indirect
The teacher said, “The earth moves round the sun.”	The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun.
My friend said to me, “I write with my left hand.”	My friend told me that he writes with his left hand.
He said, “It takes two to make a quarrel.”	He said that it takes two to make a quarrel.
He said to me, “I go for a walk every morning.”	He told me that he goes for a walk every morning.

(2) If the Reported Speech states a Past Historical Fact, the Simple Past tense remains unchanged.

Direct	Indirect
The teacher said to the boys, “Ashoka renounced war after the conquest of Kalinga.”	The teacher told the boys that Ashoka renounced war after the conquest of Kalinga.
Suresh said, “The plane leaves at midnight.”	Suresh said that the plane leaves at midnight.

     (3)The simple Past or Past Continuous Tense in the Reported Speech remains Unchanged, if it sates two actions that took place at the same time.

Direct	Indirect
He said, “I was swimming in the river when the rain started.”	He said that he was swimming in the river when the rain started.
He said, “My sister was listening to the radio while I was writing letters.”	He said that his sister was listening to the radio while he was writing letters.

(4)  If the Reported Speech expresses an “Imagined Condition”. Its tense remains unchanged.

Direct	Indirect
He said, “If I were you, I would help him.”	He said that if he were you, he would help him.
He said, “I would build a hospital If I won a lottery.”	He said that he would build a hospital if he won a lottery.

       

        (5) The future tense in the Reported speech remains unchanged, if what it says refers to the future at the time of reporting.

Direct	Indirect
He said today, “I am going to build a hospital.”	He said today that he is going to build a hospital.
They said this morning, “ We are going to celebrate prize distribution function in our school in the month of January.”	They said this morning that they are going to celebrate prize distribution function in their school in the month of January.

Click the link for Direct Indirect in ASSERTIVE/SIMPLE SENTENCES OR STATEMENTS